'Research and experimental development Essay\r'

'â€Å"Research and experimental using (R& adenine;D) comprise creative educate under channeln on a systematic basis in order to addition the line of merchandise of familiarity, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the exercise of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.” (OECD (2002) Frascati Manual: proposed meter practice for surveys on enquiry and experimental nurture, sixth edition.)[1] It is used to establish or confirm facts, affirm the results of previous work, solve new or existent both(prenominal)ers, support theorems, or develop new theories. A explore project whitethorn also be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, explore may replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The master(a) purposes of basic interrogation (as oppose to applied look) argon documentation, disc all told(prenominal) overy, interpretation, or the explore an d development of regularitys and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to query depend on epistemologies, which pull up stakes considerably both(prenominal) deep down and amid humanities and sciences. in that location atomic number 18 some(prenominal) forms of explore: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner search, etc. Contents [hide]\r\n1 Forms of research\r\n2 Etymology\r\n3 Definitions\r\n4 Steps in conducting research\r\n5 scientific research\r\n6 Historical method\r\n7 Research methods\r\n8 Publishing\r\n9 Research funding\r\n10 Original research\r\n10.1 Different forms\r\n11 elegant research\r\n12 See also\r\n13 References\r\n14 Further interpret\r\n15 immaterial links\r\nForms of research[edit artificial lake | editbeta]\r\nScientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific training and theories for the explana tion of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by clement organizations and by private groups, including m whatever companies. Scientific research net be subdivided into different classifications according to their donnish and application disciplines. Scientific research is a astray used criterion for judging the standing of an donnish institution, much(prenominal) as business schools, but both(prenominal) argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because the note of research does not tell about the spirit of teaching (these do not necessarily gibe totally).[2]\r\nResearch in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics, and a different, more relativist epistemology. liberal arts scholars usually do not search for the eventual(prenominal) correct coif to a uncertainty, but alternatively explore the issues and flesh outs that surround it. Context is eer important, and context can be social, diachronic, political, cultural or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary coil origins and other evidence to systematically investigate a paper, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. tasty research, also seen as ‘practice-based research’, can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable consistence of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth. Etymology[edit source | editbeta]\r\nAristotle, 384 BC †322 BC, †one of the early figures in the development of the scientific method.[3] The word research is derived from the Middle french â€Å"recherche”, which means â€Å"to go about seek”, the boundary itself being derived from the Old French terminal figure â€Å"recerchier” a compound word from â€Å"re-” + â€Å"cerchier”, or â€Å"sercher”, import ‘search’.[4] The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.[4] Definitions[edit source | editbeta]\r\nResearch has been defined in a number of different modes.\r\nA unspecific definition of research is given by Martyn Shuttleworth †â€Å"In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any accumulation of entropy, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.”[5] Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states †â€Å"Research is a military operation of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. It consists of three steps: Pose a dubiety, collect information to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.[6] The Merriam-Webster Onlin e Dictionary defines research in more detail as â€Å"a studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation involveed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of veritable theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws”.[4] Steps in conducting research[edit source | editbeta]\r\nResearch is often conducted using the hourglass model social organisation of research.[7] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information finished the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of questionion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:[8] realisation of research problem\r\nLiterature freshen up\r\nSpecifying the purpose of research\r\n trammel specific research questions or hypotheses\r\nData disposition\r\nAnalyzing and interpreting the info\r\nReporting and evaluating research\r\n communication the research findings and, possibly, recommendations The steps generally represent the general work on, however they should be viewed as an ever-changing process sooner than a fixed set of steps.[9] virtually researches begin with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[10] The literary productions review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides acknowledgment for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given base study before a research question is identified.\r\nA gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the possibleness. The meditation is the possibility to be tried and true. The researcher(s) collects information to test the venture. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as trial-and-error research. The results of the data compendium in confirming or failing to deny the Null hypothesis are then describe and evaluated. At the end the researcher may discuss avenues for further research. Rudolph Rummel says, â€Å"… no researcher should accept any one or 2 tests as definitive. It is only(prenominal) when a range of tests are accordant over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have a bun in the oven corporate trust in the results.”[11] Scientific research[edit source | editbeta]\r\nMain expression: Scientific method\r\nPrimary scientific research being carried out at the Microscopy Laboratory of the Idaho field of study Laboratory.\r\nScientific research equipment at MIT.\r\nGenerally, research is mute to follow a certain structural process. though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually actuate of most formal research, both basic and applied: Obs ervations and Formation of the topic: Consists of the subject orbital cavity of ones interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research exit have to be justified by linking its enormousness to already existing knowledge about the topic.\r\n hypothesis: A testable prediction which bearingates the relationship surrounded by two or more variables. Conceptual definition: definition of a concept by relating it to other concepts. working(a) definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they impart be measured/assessed in the study. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by using specific res earch instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable. Analysis of data: Involves breaking agglomerate the individual pieces of data in order to vagabond polishs about it. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures and pictures, and then described in words. Test, revising of hypothesis\r\nConclusion, reiteration if necessary\r\nA common misconception is that a hypothesis entrust be proven (see, rather, Null hypothesis). Generally a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is discrepant with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful lyric poem is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven , but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific test and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.\r\nA useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will follow it. Researchers can also use a nugatory hypothesis, which state no relationship or oddment between the independent or dependent variables. A null hypothesis uses a sample of all possible people to make a conclusion about the population.[12] Historical method[edit source | editbeta]\r\nMain oblige: Historical method\r\nGerman historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based history. The historical method comp rises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are dissimilar history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the\r\nheadings of external unfavorable judgment, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:[13] Identification of origin date\r\nEvidence of localization\r\n intuition of authorship\r\nAnalysis of data\r\nIdentification of virtue\r\nAttribution of credibility\r\nResearch methods[edit source | editbeta]\r\nThe terminal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure): prying research, which helps to identify and de fine a problem or question. Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question. Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using semiempirical evidence.\r\nThe research room at the New York popular Library, an example of secondary coil research in progress. There are two major types of research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:\r\nMaurice Hilleman is credited with saving more lives than any other scientist of the 20th century.[14] Qualitative research\r\n cause of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. intercommunicate a broad question and collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is analyzed searching for themes. This type of research aims to investigate a question without attempting to qua ntifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of research subjects[citation needed]. Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses[citation needed]. Qualitative research is united with the philosophical and divinatory stance of social constructionism. Quantitative research\r\ntaxonomic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).[15] Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism. The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random take and structured data collection instruments that fit divers(a) experiences into predetermined response categories[citation needed].\r\nThese methods produce results that are unaccented to summarize, compare, and generalize[citation needed]. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from scheme and/or being able to estimate the sizing of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment)[citation needed]. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a bounti fulr population, the researcher will employ prospect sampling to select participants.[16] In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data.\r\nPrimary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[17] Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.[18] Publishing[edit source | editbeta]\r\nCover of the graduation issue of Nature, 4 November 1869.\r\nAcademic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for schoolman scholars to peer review the work and make it lendable for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most ac ademic work is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are true as contributions of knowledge or research vary great(p)ly between fields; from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently.[19] It has also been suggested that all published studies should be\r\n'